本文转自《Physorg》发表的题为“This is what you need to know about carbon capture and storage”的文章。

作者： Christina Benjaminsen, 挪威科技大学

日期：2019.10.08

原文链接：https://phys.org/news/2019-10-carbon-capture-storage.html

Norway has the world’s largest test facility for CO2 capture technology at Mongstad. 

挪威在蒙斯塔德拥有全球最大的二氧化碳捕集技术测试设施

Why is there so much talk about storing CO2 underground? Doesn't it cost more than it's worth? Here we provide the research scientists' answers and explanations of why CCS is climate technology that we are completely dependent on. (And yes, it is perfectly safe.) 

为什么有这么多关于地下存储二氧化碳的讨论？难道它的价值还不够吗? 在这里，我们提供研究科学家的答案和解释，说明CCS为什么是我们完全依赖的气候技术。 （是的，这是绝对安全的。）

What exactly is CCS?

CCS到底是什么？

CCS is an abbreviation of carbon capture and storage. The carbon referred to here is the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2), which is emitted when we, for example, burn oil, coal or gas and when we manufacture cement and other industrial products.

CCS是碳捕集和封存的缩写。 此处所说的碳是温室气体二氧化碳（CO2），例如，当我们燃烧石油，煤炭或天然气，以及生产水泥和其他工业产品时，会排放二氧化碳。

So, CCS is technology that can capture and transport this CO2 and store it safely under the earth's surface. Many have therefore begun to refer to CCS as carbon recycling, since the plan is to return the CO2 to where it came from, underground, for example in old, stable oil reservoirs that can be sealed.

因此，CCS是一种可以捕集和运输CO2并将其安全地封存在地下的技术。 因此，许多人开始将CCS称为碳回收，因为该技术是将CO2返回到地下，例如封存在密闭、废弃的稳定油藏中。

Why is so-called CCS—capture and underground storage of CO2—so important?

为什么所谓的CCS（碳捕集与地下封存技术）如此重要？

The reason is that all serious scenarios for the future depend on us being able to meet this challenge if the two-degree goal is to be achieved in practice. In other words, we have no choice! The reason is that we will be dependent on oil and gas for several years to come. Turning off the world's oil supplies is a far more unrealistic solution.

原因是，如果要在实践中实现两度目标，那么未来的所有严峻形势都取决于我们能否应对这一挑战。 换句话说，我们别无选择！ 原因是未来几年我们将依赖石油和天然气。 关闭世界的石油供应是一个更加不现实的解决方案。

The International Energy Agency (IEA) and the UN Climate Panel clearly state that it is "extremely probable" that climate change is connected with our CO2 emissions. Hence, by 2050 the world must reduce emissions of CO2 by 5 gigatons per year. This is equivalent to the total CO2 emissions from about ten thousand factories and power stations. CCS can contribute to eliminating fully 14-17 percent of these emissions. (Based on figures from 2015.)

国际能源机构（IEA）和联合国气候小组明确指出，气候变化与我们排放的CO2“极有可能”相关性很高。 因此，到2050年，世界每年必须减少50亿吨的二氧化碳排放量。 这相当于约一万家工厂和发电厂的二氧化碳排放总量。 CCS可以帮助完全消除这些排放的14-17％。 （基于2015年的数据。）

Without this method it will be impossible to achieve the so-called two-degree goal, which in the opinion of an increasing number of scientists ought to be adjusted to 1.5 degrees. To be on the safe side (i.e. aiming for 1.5 degrees) we should actually reduce emissions even further, at the same time as we implement capture and storage of CO2.

没有这种方法，就不可能实现所谓的两度目标，越来越多的科学家认为应该将其调整为1.5度。 为了安全起见（即瞄准1.5度），我们实际上应该在实现二氧化碳捕集和封存的同时，进一步减少排放。

To sum up: Such initiatives as the increased use of nuclear power and renewable energy, and changes involving the electrification of the transport industry will not be enough. We cannot manage without CCS. The world must therefore undergo change on a scale we have never seen before, and this is urgent.

总结：增加核能和可再生能源的利用以及涉及运输行业电气化的变革等举措是不够的。 没有CCS，我们将无法管理。 因此，世界必须经历前所未有的规模变化，这是紧迫的。

Why has it come to this?

为什么会这样呢？

First of all: The world's climate researchers agree that CO2 is a greenhouse gas that inhibits heat radiation and therefore causes the Earth's temperature to rise. When the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere increases, the insulating effect of the atmosphere also increases—in other words, CO2 contributes to the greenhouse effect. Natural emissions of CO2 are handled by the planet itself, since trees and plants absorb CO2 in connection with photosynthesis, resulting in the so-called "carbon cycle". However, since the industrial revolution our demand for energy has increased, and this demand has been satisfied by using coal, oil and gas, which without human interference would have remained untouched, as a natural underground carbon store. By burning coal and gas, and by establishing industry that also emits CO2, we have released more CO2 than nature is capable of absorbing alone, for example through the process of photosynthesis.

首先：世界气候研究人员一致认为，二氧化碳是一种温室气体，会抑制热辐射并因此导致地球温度升高。 当大气中的CO2量增加时，大气的隔热效果也会增强-换句话说，CO2有助于温室效应。 由于树木和植物通过光合作用吸收了CO2，因此二氧化碳本身的自然排放量由行星本身来处理，从而导致所谓的“碳循环”。 但是，自工业革命以来，我们对能源的需求增加了，并且通过使用煤炭，石油和天然气满足了这一需求，而煤炭，石油和天然气作为天然的地下碳库，在没有人为干预的情况下将保持不变。 通过燃烧煤炭和天然气，并通过建立排放二氧化碳的工厂，我们释放的二氧化碳比自然界单独吸收的二氧化碳要多，例如通过光合作用的过程。

All the available figures and scientific measurements show that greenhouse gas emissions have increased steadily since 1890, and the emissions up to the present time have resulted in a total rise of one degree in the mean temperature at the Earth's surface.

所有可用的数字和科学测量结果表明，自1890年以来，温室气体排放量一直在稳定增长，并且到现在为止的排放量已使地球表面的平均温度总共上升了1度。

We are already seeing the impact both on nature and on infrastructure. A further increase in temperature will lead to a rise in sea level as the polar ice melts, to even more extreme weather, and to more acidic seawater which in turn will cause organisms such as corals and algae to die out. Species that at present form food for animals and humans will disappear. Rising temperature and drought will dramatically reduce yields of cereals, fruit and vegetables. This will cause an increase in the number of refugees.

我们已经看到了对自然和基础设施的影响。 随着极地冰融化，温度的进一步升高将导致海平面上升，甚至导致更加极端的天气，以及酸性更高的海水，进而导致珊瑚和藻类等生物死亡。目前为动物和人类提供食物的物种将会消失。 温度升高和干旱将大大降低谷物，水果和蔬菜的产量。 这将导致难民人数增加。

Is it technically possible to capture CO2?

从技术上讲可以捕集二氧化碳吗？

Yes. Norwegian research scientists have been working on this since the 1980s. In those days CO2 had already been injected for some time (since the 1970s) into American oil fields to increase oil production. Almost the same technology is used in CO2 capture today. Since CCS commenced in 1996, more than 23 million tonnes of CO2 have been safely stored at the Sleipner field and we have been storing CO2 at the Snøhvit field since 2008. The storage takes place in brine-filled pores in sandstone formations (so-called salt-water aquifers). Such CO2 accumulations are sealed by a natural geological caprock, such as shale or clay.

是。 自1980年代以来，挪威研究科学家一直在为此进行研究。 在那些日子里（自1970年代以来）已经将CO2注入美国油田以增加石油产量。 如今，二氧化碳捕集中几乎使用了相同的技术。 自1996年CCS开始实施以来，已在Sleipner油田安全储存了超过2300万吨的二氧化碳，自2008年以来我们一直在Snøhvit油田储存二氧化碳。储存在砂岩地层充满盐水的孔隙中（所谓 盐水层）。 此类CO2被天然地质盖层（如页岩或粘土）封闭。

Norway also has the world's largest test facility for CO2 capture technology at Mongstad. Here, large and small technology providers can present their innovative concepts for improving CO2 capture technology and test them on an industrial scale under carefully controlled conditions.

挪威还在蒙斯塔德拥有世界上最大的二氧化碳捕集技术测试设施。 在这里，各种规模的技术提供商都可以展示其创新概念，以改善CO2捕集技术，并在严格控制的条件下以工业规模对其进行测试。

Is it expensive?

它成本高吗？

All technology costs money, but the costs that climate change will impose on us will be far higher.

所有技术都要花钱，但是气候变化将给我们带来的成本将更高。

SINTEF's estimates show that the cost of large-scale (i.e. millions of tonnes per year) capture, transport and storage of CO2 from coal-fired power plants will be approximately USD 93 per tonne (NOK 830). (See the key facts box). This cost varies according to the country, source, transport distance and type of disposal site. Capturing CO2 from cement factories, steelworks and incineration of waste will cost less than capturing CO2 from power plants.

SINTEF的估算显示，从燃煤电厂大规模捕集，运输和储存CO2的成本（即每年数百万吨）约为每吨93美元（830挪威克朗）。 该费用因国家，来源，运输距离和处置地点的类型而异。 从水泥厂，钢铁厂捕获二氧化碳和焚化废物的成本要比从发电厂捕获二氧化碳便宜。

However, CCS is getting cheaper all the time: As is the case with other technology that is initially expensive, CO2 capture has become more efficient and therefore cheaper. Research scientists expect the price to sink further, in step with the implementation of the technology. Spreading of this technology is also seen as representing major potential for industrial development.

但是，CCS一直在变得越来越便宜：与最初昂贵的其他技术一样，CO2捕集也变得更加高效，因此更加便宜。 研究科学家预计，随着该技术的实施，价格将进一步下跌。 该技术的传播也被视为代表了工业发展的主要潜力。

How does CCS work in practice?

CCS在实践中如何工作？

Essentially, there are two categories of CCS:

本质上，CCS有两类：

The first is to capture and store CO2 found in power generation and other industries, such as the cement, steel and waste industries, as well as power generation from natural gas and coal. These are sources with high CO2 emissions.

首先是捕集和储存发电和其他行业（例如水泥，钢铁和废物行业以及天然气和煤炭发电）中排放的二氧化碳。 这些是二氧化碳排放量高的来源。

SINTEF's research facility for CO2 -capture in Trondheim, Norway. The plant will make it cheaper to clean the exhaust gases from gas and coal power plants and the process industry for the greenhouse gas CO2. The laboratory is used for research on chemical purification of CO2 from exhaust gases, the method that will be used in the first full-scale plants in the world for CO2 capture. Photo: Thor Nielsen.

SINTEF位于挪威特隆赫姆的二氧化碳捕集研究设施。 该工厂将降低从天然气和煤炭发电厂以及温室气体二氧化碳处理行业排放的废气的清洁成本。 该实验室用于研究从废气中化学净化CO2的方法，该方法将在世界上第一批大规模捕集CO2的工厂中使用。

This is done using various chemical processes.

这可以通过各种化学过程完成。

This absorbtion technology (among these, amine technology) uses chemicals that bind to the CO2 contained in the industrial flue gases before it reaches the chimney. This means that industries such as the steel industry, fertilizer producers and cement factories can reduce their CO2 emissions to zero.

这种吸收技术（其中包括胺技术）使用的化学物质在进入烟囱之前会与工业烟气中包含的CO2结合。 这意味着钢铁行业，化肥生产商和水泥厂等行业可以将其二氧化碳排放量减少到零。

This is extremely important as these industries produce goods the world needs, but are also set to produce CO2 as a by-product of their activity well into the future. CCS is the only solution there is that can deliver zero emissions for these industries.

这是极其重要的，因为这些行业生产世界所需的商品，同时也准备将二氧化碳作为其未来活动的副产品。 CCS是唯一可以为这些行业实现零排放的解决方案。

To capture the CO2, the first step is the use of chemicals to bind to the CO2. Then the CO2 must be separated from the chemicals to get pure CO2. To achieve this, the mixture is heated to release the CO2. This process leaves two products: pure CO2 that is easy to handle and chemicals that can be reused.

为了捕获二氧化碳，第一步是使用化学物质与二氧化碳结合。 然后，必须将CO2与化学物质分离，以获得纯净的CO2。 为此，将混合物加热以释放CO2。 该过程产生两种产品：易于处理的纯二氧化碳和可重复使用的化学药品。

The process of separating the CO2 from the chemicals is costly, because it requires a lot of energy. Such CO2 purification is therefore most profitable in industrial processes that generate waste heat, because the energy from this excess heat can be used for the purification process. Norwegian researchers and Aker Solutions have developed a mobile test facility for this in the Solvit project.

从化学物质中分离出二氧化碳的过程非常昂贵，因为它需要大量的能源。 因此，这种二氧化碳净化在产生废热的工业过程中最有利可图，因为来自这种多余热量的能量可以用于净化过程。 挪威研究人员和Aker Solutions在Solvit项目中为此开发了一个移动测试设备。

The mobile test facility has verified capture from gas- and coal-fired power stations, refineries, waste incineration facilities and cement factories. Researchers held tests in six pilot plants in Germany, Scotland, the U.S. and Norway and evaluated 90 different chemical mixtures to find the best one.

移动测试设施已经验证了从燃气和燃煤发电站，精炼厂，废物焚烧设施和水泥厂捕获的污染物。 研究人员在德国，苏格兰，美国和挪威的六家中试工厂进行了测试，并评估了90种不同的化学混合物，以找到最佳混合物。

The chemical purification method can also be used when creating hydrogen from natural gas. Using this method, the hydrogen becomes completely emission-free.

当从天然气中产生氢气时，也可以使用化学纯化方法。 使用这种方法，氢实现零排放。

The second method is called BIO-CCS. In practice this means extracting CO2 from the atmosphere.

第二种方法称为BIO-CCS。 实际上，这意味着从大气中提取二氧化碳。

The principle is to capture and store CO2 from sources that are initially considered climate neutral, such as biological waste, wood chips or manure. What is captured is the CO2 found in the earth's natural cycle—and not CO2 from carbon sources such as coal, oil and gas. This way we reduce the amount of greenhouse gas that already exists in the atmosphere, because it comes from the natural, biological CO2 cycle.

原理是从最初被认为是气候中性的来源（例如生物废物，木屑或肥料）中捕获和储存CO2。 捕获的是地球自然循环中发现的二氧化碳，而不是来自煤炭，石油和天然气等碳源的二氧化碳。 这样，我们减少了大气中已经存在的温室气体的量，因为它来自自然的生物二氧化碳循环。

BIO-CCS can also be done by capturing and storing CO2 from biological sources through biocarbon (charcoal) production. Biocarbon is a good soil improver and also binds to CO2, as long as the coal is not burned and remains in the soil. The method of producing biocarbon is called pyrolysis, and is so simple that it can be done in your own garden with garden waste, for example. However, a pyrolysis furnace is needed.

BIO-CCS也可以通过从生物来源通过生产生物碳（木炭）捕获和储存CO2来完成。 只要煤不燃烧并保留在土壤中，生物碳便是一种良好的土壤改良剂，并与二氧化碳结合。 生产生物碳的方法称为热解法，它非常简单，例如可以在您自己的花园中用花园垃圾进行处理。 但是，需要热解炉。

In the oven, the biomass is heated to between 500 and 700 degrees with a minimal air supply in no more than 20 minutes. Biocarbon contains twice as much carbon as other organic matter. The method is smart because we only need soil or cultivated land for CO2 storage, which makes the transport and storage of CO2 less complicated than from industry. Of course, the method is most effective when used on a large scale in horticulture or agriculture.

在烤箱中，将生物质加热到500至700度，同时在不超过20分钟的时间内提供最少的空气。 生物碳的碳含量是其他有机物质的两倍。 这种方法很聪明，因为我们只需要土壤或耕地来存储CO2，这使得CO2的运输和存储不像工业上那样复杂。 当然，该方法在园艺或农业中大规模使用时最有效。

According to figures from the Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), emissions from the Norwegian agricultural sector can be halved if 4,000 Norwegian farms produce and mix biocarbon into the soil. NIBIO is a partner in the CAPTURE+ project and are the ones that have researched biocarbon for the longest in Norway.

根据挪威生物经济研究所（NIBIO）的数据，如果4,000个挪威农场生产并将生物碳混合到土壤中，则挪威农业部门的排放量可减少一半。 NIBIO是CAPTURE +项目的合作伙伴，也是挪威研究生物碳时间最长的国家。

How do we know that transporting CO2 in pipelines is safe?

我们如何知道在管道中运输二氧化碳是安全的？

Today CO2 is transported in pipelines that extend over thousands of kilometres of land in North America. In Norway, there is 150 kilometres of CO2 pipeline on the seabed from the Snøhvit field to Melkøya in Hammerfest.

如今，二氧化碳是通过管道运输的，管道延伸到北美数千公里的土地。 在挪威，从Snøhvit油田到Hammerfest的Melkøya的海底有150公里的二氧化碳管道。

Consequently, transporting CO2 is completely safe if all the pipelines are specifically designed just for CO2 transport. To find out what is needed, SINTEF has developed an advanced simulation model that can predict whether a crack or other damage to a CO2 transport pipe can be developed into a continuous breach. The tool shows how the pipes themselves can prevent cracks from growing without the need to make the pipe walls unnecessarily thick or for other costly risk-reducing measures.

因此，如果所有管道都是专门为二氧化碳运输而设计的，则运输二氧化碳是完全安全的。 为了找出需要的东西，SINTEF开发了一种先进的仿真模型，可以预测是否可以将对CO2输送管的裂缝或其他损坏发展为连续的裂缝。 该工具显示了管道本身如何能够防止裂纹扩展，而无需使管道壁变得不必要的厚或不需要其他昂贵的降低风险的措施。

Attempting to over-dimension the pipelines to control fractures by increasing the wall thickness is a costly strategy. For a 50-mile-long pipeline with a 36-inch diameter, increasing the wall thickness by just three millimetres will add NOK 250 million (GBP £22.25) to the total cost given today's steel prices.

试图通过增加壁厚来扩大管道尺寸以控制裂缝是一项昂贵的策略。 对于50英里长，直径为36英寸的管道，将壁厚增加三毫米，将在当今钢价的总成本中增加2.5亿挪威克朗（22.25英镑）。

The Norwegian oil industry has many decades of experience in pipe design and safety assessments related to natural gas pipeline transport. But CO2 has differing properties than natural gas. Unlike natural gas, CO2 heats as pressure decreases. If there is a hole in a CO2 pipeline, up to ten times more energy is released compared to a leak in a natural gas pipeline.

挪威石油工业在与天然气管道运输有关的管道设计和安全评估方面拥有数十年的经验。 但是二氧化碳与天然气的性质不同。 与天然气不同，CO2随着压力降低而加热。 如果二氧化碳管道中有孔，则释放的能量最多是天然气管道中泄漏的十倍。

Recently, SINTEF has used the simulation model to prepare projections for the Northern Lights project. This project is managed by Equinor with Shell and Total as partners and covers the transport and storage part of Norway's demonstration project for full-scale CO2 handling.

最近，SINTEF使用模拟模型为北极光项目准备了投影。 该项目由Equinor与壳牌和道达尔作为合作伙伴进行管理，涵盖了挪威大规模二氧化碳示范项目的运输和存储部分。

How do we know that underground storage of CO2 is safe?

我们如何知道地下二氧化碳的存储是安全的？

To date, all research and experience suggests that storage of CO2 can be done safely if appropriate storage areas are selected.

迄今为止，所有研究和经验表明，如果选择了适当的存储区域，则可以安全地完成二氧化碳的存储。

A good example is Equinor's pilot project at Sleipner, where 1 million tonnes of CO2 per year has been injected into the pourous sandstone under denser layers of clay almost 1,000 metres under the seabed since 1996. SINTEF researchers many topics related to safety, but also cost-effective, storage:

一个很好的例子是Equinor在Sleipner的试点项目，自1996年以来，每年将100万吨的CO2注入到海床下将近1000米的较稠密粘土层下的多孔砂岩中。SINTEF研究人员涉及许多与安全性相关的主题，但也涉及成本 有效，存储：

One example of ongoing research is the SINTEF-coordinated Pre-ACT project, which is funded by the EU, the Research Council of Norway, Equinor, Shell and Total, among others.

正在进行研究的一个例子是SINTEF协调的Pre-ACT项目，该项目由欧盟，挪威研究委员会，Equinor，壳牌和道达尔等机构资助。

In the project, researchers have access to monitoring data from important CO2 storage demonstration plants. The data will be used to calibrate and demonstrate the value of the developed methods and to develop a "protocol" or recommendations.

在该项目中，研究人员可以访问来自重要的二氧化碳封存示范工厂的监测数据。 数据将用于校准和证明所开发方法的价值以及制定“协议”或建议。

The recommendations are developed as tools for operational decisions based on information about the pore pressure in the storage reservoir. This will help the operators maximize both safety and the storage capacity in a cost-effective way. The system will also be used to monitor the reservoirs.

这些建议被开发为基于有关储层中孔隙压力信息进行操作决策的工具。 这将帮助操作员以经济有效的方式最大化安全性和存储容量。 该系统还将用于监测储层。

Pre-ACT uses a large field lab for CO2 storage: Svelvik CO2 Field Lab. The field is located in a sand pit near Drammen in Norway and is managed by SINTEF. The lab consists of one injection well and four monitoring wells, all with instruments to measure what is happening both in the wells themselves and in the areas between the wells. This gives researchers even more unique data.

Pre-ACT使用大型现场实验室进行CO2储存：Svelvik CO2现场实验室。 该油田位于挪威Drammen附近的一个沙坑中，由SINTEF管理。 该实验室由一口注水井和四口监控井组成，所有这些仪器都可以测量油井本身以及油井之间区域的状况。 这为研究人员提供了更多独特的数据。

In addition, this field lab provides researchers with unique opportunities for testing new methods and equipment, such as fibre-optic sensors for CO2 monitoring.